Washington Leads the Revolution
The American Revolution was shaped by high principles and low ones, by imperial politics, dynastic rivalries, ambition, greed, personal loyalties, patriotism, demographic growth, social and economic changes, cultural developments, British intransigence, and American anxieties. It was shaped by conflicting interests between Britain and America, between regions within America, between families and between individuals. It was shaped by religion, ethnicity, and race, as well as by tensions between rich and poor. It was shaped, perhaps above all else, by the aspirations of ordinary people to make fulfilling lives for themselves and their families, to be secure in their possessions, safe in their homes, free to worship as they wished, and to improve their lives by availing themselves of opportunities that seemed to lie within their grasp.
No one of these factors, nor any specific combination of them, can properly be said to have caused the American Revolution. An event as vast as the American Revolution is simply too complex to assign it neatly to particular causes. Although we can never know the causes of the American Revolution with precision, we can see very clearly the most important consequences of the Revolution. They are simply too large and important to miss, and so clearly related to the Revolution that they cannot be traced to any other sequence of events. Every educated American should understand and appreciate them.
First, the American Revolution secured the independence of the United States from the dominion of Great Britain and separated it from the British Empire. While it is altogether possible that the thirteen colonies would have become independent during the nineteenth or twentieth century, as other British colonies did, the resulting nation would certainly have been very different than the one that emerged, independent, from the Revolutionary War. The United States was the first nation in modern times to achieve its independence in a national war of liberation and the first to explain its reasons and its aims in a declaration of independence, a model adopted by national liberation movements in dozens of countries over the last 250 years.
Second, the American Revolution established a republic, with a government dedicated to the interests of ordinary people rather than the interests of kings and aristocrats. The United States was the first large republic since ancient times and the first one to emerge from the revolutions that rocked the Atlantic world, from South America to Eastern Europe, through the middle of the nineteenth century. The American Revolution influenced, to varying degrees, all of the subsequent Atlantic revolutions, most of which led to the establishment of republican governments, though some of those republics did not endure. The American republic has endured, due in part to the resilience of the Federal Constitution, which was the product of more than a decade of debate about the fundamental principles of republican government. Today most of the world’s nations are at least nominal republics due in no small way to the success of the American republic.
Third, the American Revolution created American national identity, a sense of community based on shared history and culture, mutual experience, and belief in a common destiny. The Revolution drew together the thirteen colonies, each with its own history and individual identity, first in resistance to new imperial regulations and taxes, then in rebellion, and finally in a shared struggle for independence. Americans inevitably reduced the complex, chaotic and violent experiences of the Revolution into a narrative of national origins, a story with heroes and villains, of epic struggles and personal sacrifices. This narrative is not properly described as a national myth, because the characters and events in it, unlike the mythic figures and imaginary events celebrated by older cultures, were mostly real. Some of the deeds attributed to those characters were exaggerated and others were fabricated, usually to illustrate some very real quality for which the subject was admired and held up for emulation. The Revolutionaries themselves, mindful of their role as founders of the nation, helped create this common narrative as well as symbols to represent national ideals and aspirations.
American national identity has been expanded and enriched by the shared experiences of two centuries of national life, but those experiences were shaped by the legacy of the Revolution and are mostly incomprehensible without reference to the Revolution. The unprecedented movement of people, money and information in the modern world has created a global marketplace of goods, services, and ideas that has diluted the hold of national identity on many people, but no global identity has yet emerged to replace it, nor does this seem likely to happen any time in the foreseeable future.
Fourth, the American Revolution committed the new nation to ideals of liberty, equality, natural and civil rights, and responsible citizenship and made them the basis of a new political order. None of these ideals was new or originated with Americans. They were all rooted in the philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome, and had been discussed, debated and enlarged by creative political thinkers beginning with the Renaissance. The political writers and philosophers of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment disagreed about many things, but all of them imagined that a just political order would be based on these ideals. What those writers and philosophers imagined, the American Revolution created—a nation in which ideals of liberty, equality, natural and civil rights, and responsible citizenship are the basis of law and the foundation of a free society.
The revolutionary generation did not complete the work of creating a truly free society, which requires overcoming layers of social injustice, exploitation, and other forms of institutionalized oppression that have accumulated over many centuries, as well as eliminating the ignorance, bigotry, and greed that support them. One of the fundamental challenges of a political order based on principles of universal right is that it empowers ignorant, bigoted, callous, selfish, and greedy people in the same way it empowers the wise and virtuous. For this reason, political progress in free societies can be painfully, frustratingly slow, with periods of energetic change interspersed with periods of inaction or even retreat. The wisest of our Revolutionaries understood this, and anticipated that creating a truly free society would take many generations. The flaw lies not in our Revolutionary beginnings or our Revolutionary ideals, but in human nature. Perseverance alone is the answer.
Our independence, our republic, our national identity and our commitment to the high ideals that form the basis of our political order are not simply the consequences of the Revolution, to be embalmed in our history books. They are living legacies of the Revolution, more important now as we face the challenges of the modern world than ever before. Without understanding them, we find our history incomprehensible, our present confused, and our future dark. Understanding them, we recognize our common origins, appreciate our present challenges, and can advocate successfully for the Revolutionary ideals that outlines a strong foundation for just government.
Timeline of the Revolutionary War
1754–1763
1754
June 19–July 11: The Albany Congress
1763
Oct. 7: Proclamation of 1763
1764
April 5: The Sugar Act
September 1: The Currency Act
1765
March 22: The Stamp Act
March 24: The Quartering Act of 1765
May 29: Patrick Henry's "If this be treason, make the most of it!" speech
May 30: The Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions
Oct. 7–25: The Stamp Act Congress
1766
March 18: The Declaratory Act
1767
June 29: The Townshend Revenue Act
1768
August 1: Boston Non-Importation Agreement
1770
March 5: The Boston Massacre
1772
June 9: The Gaspee Affair
1773
May 10: The Tea Act Dec. 16: The Boston Tea Party
1774
March 31: Boston Port Act, one of the "Intolerable Acts"
May 20: Administration of Justice Act, one of the "Intolerable Acts"
May 20: Massachusetts Government Act, one of the "Intolerable Acts"
June 2: Quartering Act of 1774, one of the "Intolerable Acts"
June 22: Quebec Act, one of the "Intolerable Acts"
Sept. 5–Oct. 26: The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia and issues Declaration and Resolves
Oct. 10: Battle of Point Pleasant, Virginia (disputed as to whether it was a battle of the American Revolution or the culmination of Lord Dunmore's War)
Oct. 20: The Association (prohibition of trade with Great Britain)
Oct. 24: Galloway's Plan rejected
1775
March 23: Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech
Apr. 18: The Rides of Paul Revere and William Dawes
Apr. 19: Minutemen and redcoats clash at Lexington and Concord, "the shot heard 'round the world."
May 10: Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys seize Fort Ticonderoga
May 10: The Second Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia
June 15: George Washington named Commander-in-Chief
June 17: Battle of Bunker Hill: The British drive the Americans from Breed's Hill
July 3: Washington assumes command of the Continental Army
Nov. 13: Richard Montgomery's Continental Army forces occupy Montreal in Canada
Dec. 11: Virginia and NC patriots rout Loyalist troops and burn Norfolk
Dec. 22: Colonel Thomson with 1,500 rangers and militia capture Loyalists at Great Canebrake, SC
Dec. 23–30: Snow Campaign, in SC, so called because patriots are impeded by 15" of snow
Dec. 30–31: American forces under Benedict Arnold fail to seize Quebec
1776
Jan. 1: Daniel Morgan is taken prisoner during his attempt to take Quebec City
Jan. 15: Paine's Common Sense published
Feb. 27: Revolutionaries drive the loyalists from Moore's Creek Bridge, North Carolina
March 3: The Continental fleet captures New Providence Island in the Bahamas
March 17: The British evacuate Boston; British Navy moves to Halifax, Canada
June 8: Revolutionaries fail to take Three Rivers, Quebec
June 12: The Virginia Declaration of Rights
June 28: Sullivan's Island, SC, failed British naval attack
June 29: The First Virginia Constitution
June 28: American forces decisively defeat the British Navy at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina
July 1: At the instigation of British agents, the Cherokee attack along the entire southern frontier
July 1–4: Congress debates and revises the Declaration of Independence. See Chronology of the Declaration
July 4: Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence; it's sent to the printer
July 8: The Declaration of Independence is read publicly
July 15: Lyndley's Fort, SC, Patriots fend off attack by Indians and Tories dressed as Indians
Aug. 1: Ambushed by Cherokees, Patriots are saved by a mounted charge at Seneca, SC
Aug. 2: Delegates begin to sign The Declaration of Independence
Aug. 10: Tugaloo River, SC, Andrew Pickens defeats Cherokees
Aug. 12: Andrew Pickens' detachment surrounded by 185 Cherokee Indians, forms a ring and fires outward. It is known as the "Ring Fight."
Aug. 12: Colonel David Williamson and Andrew Pickens burn Tamassy, an Indian town
Aug. 27: Redcoats defeat George Washington's army in the Battle of Long Island. Washington's army escapes at night.
Sept. 15: The British occupy New York City
Sept. 16: Generals George Washington, Nathanael Greene, and Israel Putnam triumphantly hold their ground at the Battle of Harlem Heights
Sept. 19: Colonel David Williamson's Pennsylvania militia forces attacked by Cherokees at Coweecho River, NC
Oct. 11: Benedict Arnold defeated at the Battle of Valcour Island (Lake Champlain), but delayed British advance
Oct. 28: The Americans retreat from White Plains, New York. British casualties (~300) higher than American (~200).
Nov. 16: The Hessians capture Fort Washington, NY
Nov. 20: Lord Cornwallis captures Fort Lee from Nathanael Greene
Dec. 26: Washington crosses the Delaware and captures Trenton from Hessians
1777
Jan. 3: Washington victorious at Princeton
Jan. 6–May 28: Washington winters in Morristown, NJ
Apr. 27: Benedict Arnold's troops force a British retreat at Ridgefield, Connecticut.
May 20: Treaty of DeWitt's Corner, SC: Cherokees lose most of their land east of the mountains
June 14: Flag Resolution
July 5: St. Clair surrenders Fort Ticonderoga to the British
July 27: Lafayette arrives in Philadelphia
Aug. 6: The Redcoats, with Iroquois support, force the patriots back at Oriskany, NY, but then have to evacuate
Aug. 16: American Militia under General Stark victorious at the Battle of Bennington, VT (actually fought in Walloomsac, New York, several miles to the west)
Aug. 23: British withdraw from Fort Stanwix, NY, upon hearing of Benedict Arnold's approach
Aug. 25: British General Howe lands at Head of Elk, Maryland
Sept. 11: The British win the Battle of Brandywine, Pennsylvania
Sept. 16: Rainout at the Battle of the Clouds, Pennsylvania
Sept. 19: Burgoyne checked by Americans under Gates at Freeman's Farm, NY. This is part of the "Battles of Saratoga."
Sept. 21: Paoli Massacre, PA
Sept. 26: British under Howe occupy Philadelphia
Oct. 4: Americans driven off at the Battle of Germantown
Oct. 7: Burgoyne loses second battle of Freeman's Farm, NY (at Bemis Heights). This is part of the "Battles of Saratoga."
Oct. 17: Burgoyne surrenders to American General Gates at Saratoga, NY
Oct. 22: Hessian attack on Fort Mercer, NJ repulsed
Nov. 16: British capture Fort Mifflin, Pennsylvania
Dec. 5–7: Americans repulse British at Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania
Dec. 19: Washington's army retires to winter quarters at Valley Forge
1778
Feb. 6: The United States and France sign the French Alliance
March 7: British General William Howe replaced by Henry Clinton
May 20: Battle of Barren Hill, Pennsylvania. Lafayette with 500 men and about 50 Oneida Indians successfully evade British onslaught
June 18: British abandon Philadelphia and return to New York
June 19: Washington's army leaves Valley Forge
June 28: The Battle of Monmouth Court House ends in a draw
July 4: George Rogers Clark captures Kaskaskia, a French village south of St. Louis
Aug. 8: French and American forces besiege Newport, RI
Sept. 28: The Tappan Massacre ("No Flint" Grey kills 30 Americans by bayonet)
Dec. 29: The redcoats occupy Savannah
1779
Feb. 3: Major General Moultrie defeats British detachment at Port Royal Island, SC
Feb. 14: Patriots Andrew Pickens and Elijah Clarke beat Loyalists at Kettle Creek, GA
Feb. 23–24: American George Rogers Clark captures Vincennes (in what is now Indiana) on the Wabash in the Western campaign
March 3: British Lt. Colonel Jacques Marcus Prévost defeats Americans under General John Ashe at Brier Creek, GA
May 11–13: Major General Augustin Prévost (brother of Jacques, see above) breaks his siege when American forces under Major General Lincoln approach
June 20: Stono River, SC, Major General Lincoln inflicts extensive British casualties in indecisive battle
June 21: Spain declares war on Great Britain July 8: Fairfield, CT, burned by British July 11: Norwalk, CT, burned by British July 15–16: American "Mad" Anthony Wayne captures Stony Point, NY
Aug. 19: Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee attacks Paulus Hook, NJ
Aug. 29: Newtown, NY, after two massacres, American forces burn Indian villages
Sept. 23: John Paul Jones, aboard the Bonhomme Richard, captures British man-of-war Serapis near English coast
Oct. 9: American attempt to recapture Savannah, GA fails
Nov.–June 23, 1780: Washington's 2nd winter at Morristown, NJ (the harshest winter of the 18th century)
1780
May 12: British capture Charleston, SC
May 29: British crush Americans at Waxhaw Creek, SC
June 20: Patriots rout Tories at Ramseur's Mill, NC
July 11: French troops arrive at Newport, RI, to aid the American cause
Aug. 6: Patriots defeat Tories at Hanging Rock, SC
Aug. 16: British rout Americans at Camden, SC
Sept. 23: John André arrested, leading to the exposure of Benedict Arnold's plans to cede West Point to the British
Oct. 7: King's Mountain, SC: battle lasts 65 minutes. American troops led by Isaac Shelby and John Sevier defeat Major Patrick Ferguson and one third of General Cornwallis's army
Oct. 14: Washington names Nathanael Greene commander of the Southern Army
1781
Jan. 1: Mutiny of unpaid Pennsylvania soldiers
Jan. 17: American General Daniel Morgan overwhelmingly defeats British Colonel Tarleton at Cowpens, SC
Feb. 1: The Battle of Cowan's Ford, Huntersville, NC
March 2: Articles of Confederation adopted
March 15: British win costly victory at Guilford Courthouse, NC
April 25: Greene defeated at Hobkirk's Hill, SC
May 15: British Major Andrew Maxwell cedes Fort Granby, SC to Lieutenant Colonel Henry Lee
June 6: Americans recapture Augusta, GA
June 18: British hold off Americans at Ninety Six, SC
July 6: "Mad" Anthony Wayne repulsed at Green Springs Farm, VA
Sept. 8: Greene defeated at Eutaw Springs, SC
Sept. 15: French fleet drives British naval force from Chesapeake Bay
Oct. 19: Cornwallis surrounded on land and sea by Americans and French and surrenders at Yorktown, VA
1782
March 8: Gnadenhutten massacre, a.k.a. the Moravian massacre.
March 20: Lord North resigns as British prime minister
July 11: British evacuate Savannah, GA
Nov. 30: British and Americans sign preliminary Articles of Peace
Dec. 14: British leave Charleston, SC
1783
April 19: Congress ratifies preliminary peace treaty
Sept. 3: The United States and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Paris
Nov. 25: British troops leave New York City
Dec. 23: Washington resigns as Commander
1787
Sept. 17: U.S. Constitution signed
1788
June 21: U.S. Constitution adopted, when New Hampshire ratifies it