Today in Literature

 _____________________________________________________________________

ILIAD THEME ANALYSIS

HONOR & GLORY

One of the central ideas of the Iliad is the honor that soldiers earn in combat. For an ancient Greek man, the ability to perform in battle is the single greatest source of worthiness. The glory earned by soldiers on the battlefield enabled them to live on in legend, becoming heroes who would be remembered long after death. The characters of the Iliad often make reference to the great heroes of past ages, such as Hercules and Theseus. For the ancient Greeks, the term “hero” meant something stricter than it does today: the hero’s military glory could make him nearly as important as a god.

The plot of the poem is centered on the “rage of Achilles” and the fulfillment of his glory on the battlefield. Achilles’s rage stems from feeling dishonored by Agamemnon, who takes away Briseis, a woman that Achilles has captured in combat. Achilles chooses not to fight rather than accept what he sees as Agamemnon’s dishonor. Later, when he rejoins the battle after the death of Patroclus, Achilles proves he is “the best of the Achaeans” by giving the greatest military performance of the war and finally killing Hector, the Trojans’ greatest warrior.

From a modern perspective, one might consider Hector to be a more sympathetic or even honorable character than Achilles. Hector cares for his wife, child, and city, and works tirelessly to save them from destruction. Achilles cares only for himself, and spends a large part of the poem sulking. However, from the ancient Greek perspective, Achilles is in some sense more heroic or honorable simply because he is the greatest warrior on the battlefield. Similarly, Paris is a handsome man and a good lover, but because he hangs back from battle he is largely the object of scorn, and is portrayed as a ridiculous figure throughout the poem.

LOVE & FRIENDSHIP

Throughout the Iliad strong ties of love and friendship are central to the poem’s development. The friendship between soldiers can be a vital force that spurs them onward, whether in living friendship or out of revenge for the fallen. Two warriors, like Great and Little Ajax, can become a powerful fighting team because of their camaraderie. However, the desire to protect friends and loved ones extends beyond the battlefield. In some sense The Trojan War is a marital dispute over the beautiful Helen, who is caught between the desires of Paris and Menelaus.

Parental love is also an extremely important force, including the gods who watch over their mortal children in battle. It is Thetis’ love for her mortal son that causes her to ask Zeus for the favor of glorifying Achilles. Because she loves him and knows that his time on earth is short, she is moved to ask Zeus for the favor of driving the Achaeans back against the ships. Similarly, Hector’s passion to defend Troy is shown in Book VI, a tender moment in which he visits his wife and child, assuring them that he will return from battle safely.

Perhaps the most important relationship in the poem is the intense friendship between Achilles and his comrade Patroclus. More intense than a normal friendship, when Patroclus is killed, Achilles’ grief is deep enough to trigger a massive outpouring of fury on the battlefield. The intensity of his love for his friend is transformed into ruthlessness in combat, causing him to desecrate Hector’s corpse. Finally, when Priam comes in secret to the Achaean camp to ransom the body of Hector from Achilles, it is a risk he takes out of love for his son. Achilles recognizes Priam’s love for Hector and agrees to relinquish the body.

THE GODS

The gods in Homer often take an active interest in the lives of mortals, who are sometimes their children by blood. At times the gods take the form of men, as when Apollo speaks into Hector’s ear, persuading him toward a particular course of action or filling him with the strength to push back enemies. At times, the role of the gods can seem metaphorical, explaining strange changes in the moods and strength of men. However, the gods of the Iliad also sometimes act directly. The poem begins with Agamemnon’s refusal to give back the daughter of Apollo’s priest. The direct effect of this is felt when Apollo rains plague on the Achaean troops. At other times the gods perform actions that are plainly miraculous, such as when Aeneas is lifted up from battle and has his shattered leg healed on a mountaintop, or when Hephaestus forges extraordinary new armor for Achilles overnight.

The battle between Achaea and Troy is also a battle between two groups of gods in conflict. Hera, Athena, and Poseidon support the cause of the Achaeans, while Aphrodite, Ares, and Apollo assist the Trojans. Zeus, easily the strongest of the gods, presides over the conflict. The source of the gods’ conflict is a linked myth, called The Judgment of Paris, mentioned only briefly in the poem. Zeus asked Paris to judge which of three goddesses (Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite) was the fairest. Each offered to reward Paris for his choice, but Paris accepted Aphrodite’s offer of Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus. This promise begins the conflict between Achaea and Troy. Although the gods are passionate about the fate of the war, they don’t quite feel the agony of mortal men who must die. They more often help represent the eternalness of nature and the human passions.

FATE & FREE WILL

Throughout the Iliad there is a deep sense that everything that will come to pass is already fated to happen. For Homer, the Trojan War was already an old story passed down for generations, and the poem is presented from the very beginning as a completed story, “the will of Zeus…moving toward its end.” In the lives of men, the gods are powerful enough to act as fate, spurring them to actions they might not have undertaken on their own, such as Achilles’ decision not to kill Agamemnon or Helen’s return to Paris’ bedchamber, sent forth by Aphrodite. The soldiers of the poem often use the idea of fate to justify their actions, as they reason that the current battle might be their fated time to die. As Hector puts it: “And fate? No one alive has ever escaped it, / neither brave man nor coward, I tell you— / it’s born with us the day that we are born.” In Book VIII, the fate of the war is represented as a scale that Zeus literally tips in favor of the Trojans.

However, Zeus is not all-powerful, and the other gods are capable of deceiving him in order to turn the war to their advantage, at least temporarily. Accordingly, Zeus and the other gods occasionally speak about fate as something not even totally in their control. For instance, the fate of Achilles is foretold by prophecy, although the gods help bring it to pass. Thetis tells Achilles that he has the choice to either return home and live a long life without glory, or die a glorious death fighting at Troy. Paradoxically, Achilles seems to have some choice in his fate, and it is hard to say whether Achilles’ fate is already determined, or whether he controls his fate up until he makes his choice. Achilles decides to fight, knowing that he is sealing his fate when he returns to battle. Ultimately, the relationship between fate and free will in the Iliad remains unclear.

MORTALITY

As a story of war, the Iliad confronts the fact that all men are doomed to die. The poem’s battles are filled with descriptions of the deaths of soldiers who only appear in the poem in order to pass away. Homer frequently provides a small story of the life or family history of the deceased, a gesture that shows the tragedy of how much those soldiers leave behind them. However, death in battle is also natural, as Glaucus indicates: “Like the generations of leaves, the lives of mortal men…as one generation comes to life, another dies away.”

The immortal gods may endow a man with nearly immortal powers for a day, such as Diomedes or Hector, but such moments of glory are ultimately limited. The gods also serve as a counterpart for the fragility of men. Achilles is a near-exception to the rule of mortality: by legend, his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, giving him immortality except for his famous heel. Seemingly the strongest and most invulnerable of Greek heroes, Achilles is still destined to die on the battlefield, becoming a symbol of the fragility of all men.

For the ancient Greeks, the Iliad was thought to be an essentially true history of a lost golden age. The death of Hector, Troy’s strongest warrior, signals the eventual destruction of Troy itself. Often described as a great city with wide streets and high towers, Troy is an example of the impermanence of entire civilizations and the most impressive works of man. As beautiful and powerful as the Trojan civilization is, it cannot prevent its own destruction. Only the chronicle of its passing and the heroism of its men remains in the form of the Iliad itself.

WARTIME VERSES PEACETIME

Although the Iliad is largely the tale of a brutal war, it contains many reflections of the peacetime life of the ancient Greek civilization. For the characters of the poem, war is something that is connected with the other parts of life, something that every man must undergo as he defends his city. The most important sign of the relationship between war and peace is found in Book 18, when the god Hephaestus forges the new shield of Achilles. On the shield is a magnificent picture of all of Greek life, including two cities, one at war and the other at peace. Killing enemies is part and parcel with harvests and weddings. Homer supports this idea with the images he uses in the poem, often describing battle scenes by comparing them to scenes of rural Greek life. The battalions of soldiers gathering, for instance, are compared to flies swarming around a pail of milk or shepherds defending their flocks from raging lions.

The Achaean soldiers frequently refer back to the lives they left at home, their wives, children, flocks, estates, and everything else left behind in order to go to war with the Trojans. Similarly, the Trojans sometimes refer to what life was like before the long siege of the war. However, war also shifts the importance of the arts practiced in peacetime. For instance, speechmaking and verbal ability are often scorned throughout the Iliad as the sign of someone who is not willing to simply act boldly. Similarly, the bonds of love and family felt by Hector are diminished by the pitiless nature of war, as he will not be strong enough to come home to his wife and child. Even Aphrodite is a lesser goddess within the context of the war, where the mortal Diomedes is able to wound her easily.

_______________________________________________________

ILIAD CHARACTER BREAKDOWN

ACHILLES

Achilles is the protagonist of the Iliad, and the story centers on his rage and anger against Agamemnon. The son of the immortal sea-nymph Thetis and the Phthian king Peleus, Achilles is by far the greatest warrior of the Trojan War. Achilles’ mother Thetis tells him that he has a choice of two fates: either he can die a young and glorious death at Troy, or he can return home and live a long but unremarkable life. Achilles chooses the former. When Agamemnon takes the girl Briseis away from him, Achilles’ honor is wounded, and he refuses to fight. After the death of Patroclus, Achilles emerges from battle and slays many Trojans, including Hector.

HECTOR

The eldest prince of Troy and heir to the throne. Hector is brave warrior and a thoughtful leader. He is also a devoted husband and father, and is very concerned for the survival of Troy. Under his leadership, the Trojans push the Achaeans back to their ships. After Hector kills Patroclus, Achilles kills Hector for revenge.

ZEUS

The king of the gods, Zeus’ power greatly exceeds his fellow immortals. The fate of the war is changed when Zeus promises Thetis that he will give glory to Achilles by turning the war against the Achaeans. Hera is his wife, and Apollo, Athena, and Ares are among his many children.

AGAMEMNON

The king of the gods, Zeus’ power greatly exceeds his fellow immortals. The fate of the war is changed when Zeus promises Thetis that he will give glory to Achilles by turning the war against the Achaeans. Hera is his wife, and Apollo, Athena, and Ares are among his many children.

HERA

Zeus’ wife and queen of the gods. After Paris does not select her as being the most beautiful goddess, Hera has a passionate hatred of Troy. She conspires to destroy the city, often attempting to do so behind Zeus’ back. In Book 14, she puts Zeus to sleep, allowing the Achaeans to beat back the Trojans.

THETIS

Achilles’ mother, a sea-nymph. Thetis cares greatly for her mortal son, and is determined to fulfill his wishes before he dies. Legend has it that when Achilles was an infant, Thetis dipped in him the river Styx to make him immortal, making him invulnerable except for Achilles’ heel, the place where Thetis held him.

PARIS

Trojan prince, son of Priam and brother of Hector. Cowardly but successful with women, before the events of the Iliad Paris was asked to judge whether Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite was the most beautiful. He chose Aphrodite and, as a reward, she helped him to steal Helen from Menelaus, beginning the Trojan War.

Minor Characters

Patroclus

Achilles’ constant companion and brother in arms, Patroclus is known for his compassion and good sense. When the Trojans begin to attack the Achaean ships, Patroclus puts on Achilles armor and fights the Trojans in Achilles’ place. He kills many men, but is ultimately slain by Hector.

Priam

The king of Troy. Priam is an old man now, but once was a skillful fighter. He cares deeply for his numerous sons, and is heartbroken when Hector is slain by Achilles. When the time comes he travels alone to Achilles to ransom back Hector’s body.

Apollo

The golden archer, god of prophecy and music. Apollo passionately supports the Trojans in the war, and often gives assistance and encouragement on the battlefield.

Athena

The goddess of wisdom. Athena is a strong supporter of the Achaeans, having also been rejected by Paris along with Hera. She frequently lends courage and support to Achaean heroes such as Achilles, Diomedes, and Odysseus.

Poseidon

Zeus’ younger brother, the god of the sea and of earthquakes. Poseidon supports the Achaean forces, and secretly them lends his strength during Zeus’ ban on divine intervention.

Aphrodite

The goddess of love. Aphrodite was chosen by Paris over Hera and Athena, and now supports the Trojans wholeheartedly.

Diomedes

An Achaean hero, king of Argos. In Book 5, Diomedes kills many Trojans in a stretch of fighting prowess.

Great Ajax

Achaean, commander of the forces from Salamis. Great Ajax is physically the strongest Achaean. He duels or fights with Hector several times.

Odysseus

Achaean, leader of the forces from Ithaca. Odysseus is known for is cunning and his persuasive language.

Nestor

Achaean, king of the Pylians. Known for his advanced age and wise advice.

Menelaus

Agamemnon’s brother and king of Sparta. Previously married to Helen, who was abducted by Paris to begin the war.

Hephaestus

The god of fire and forges.

Helen

Paris’ wife and Menelaus’ former wife, Helen is the most beautiful woman in the world.

Xanthus

The god of the river and the river itself. He fights Achilles after Achilles kills too many Trojans in his waters.

Sarpedon

A Trojan ally, captain of the Lycians. Sarpedon is Zeus’ son, and Zeus almost rescues him from his death.

Chryses

A priest of Apollo from a city allied with Troy. He asks that Agamemnon return his daughter, Chryseis, after she is taken captive by the Greeks. When Agamemnon refuses, Chryses calls on Apollo to curse the Achaeans.

Chryseis

The daughter of Chryses, who is taken captive by the Achaeans and given to Agamemnon.

Aeneas

A Trojan captain, son of Aphrodite.

Little Ajax

Achaean captain, friend of Great Ajax.

Iris

Zeus’ messenger goddess.

Ares

The god of war.

Idomeneus

Achaean captain, king of Crete.

Thersites

A dissenting common Achaean soldier.

Calchas

A seer for the Achaeans.

Teucer

Half brother of Great Ajax. A master archer.

Meriones

Idomeneus’ second in command. A skillful warrior.

Pandarus

The Trojan archer who breaks the truce in Book 4.

Briseis

A girl taken captive by Achilles.

Glaucus

A Trojan ally from Lycia, co-commander with Sarpedon.

Sleep

The personification of the state of conscious.

Phoenix

An older Achaean who helped raise Achilles.

Sthenelus

Achaean captain, co-commander with Diomedes

Andromache

Hector’s wife.

Antilochus

Nestor’s son, an Achaean commander.

Menestheus

An Achaean soldier.

Polydamas

A Trojan commander.

Dolon

A Trojan scout killed during Diomedes and Odysseus’ night raid.

Artemis

Apollo’s sister, goddess of chastity and the hunt.

Astyanax

Hector’s infant son.

Hecuba

Priam’s wife and Hector’s mother.

Antenor

A Trojan elder, father of many Trojan warriors.

Machaon

An Achaean healer.

Deiphobus

A prince of Troy, son of Priam.

Helenus

Prince of Troy, son of Priam, and a seer.

Peleus

Achilles’ father, king of Phthia

Dione

Aphrodite’s mother.

Leto

The mother of Apollo and Artemis.

Lycaon

A son of Priam, killed by Achilles.

Euphorbus

A young Trojan favored by Hector.

Automedon

Achilles and Patroclus’ chariot driver.